The Research Process

The research process is systematic and has several stages

(a) Selection of topic
The general area for research will be determined by either academic consideration (e.g. to further knowledge on one particular area) or by a specific need for information (e.g. to make a decision on services for example whether to implement an associate degree)

(b) Research question ­
The research question is the narrowing of focus from a topic. For example the topic Associate Degrees at Community College may have a research question “The impact of implementation Associate Degrees at Community College”.

(c) Thesis
It may be at this stage a thesis will be proposed or it may be that some preliminary data gathering will take place before the thesis. For our example our thesis which we are seeking to either prove or disprove will be “Fewer students will take an Associate Degree compared with the current student numbers taking the A level programme”.

(d) Designing the research instrument
A research instrument is the way in which data (the facts) is gathered. It may be that research will be carried out solely through reviewing others research (library / book review) or combined with data gathering through research instruments such as surveys, experiments or observations. When designing the research instrument, the focus will be the goal of the research question and the thesis.

(e) Gathering data
The research will use the various instruments to collect information about the topic.

(f) Recording data
Accurate recording of data is central to research both primary and secondary research can be biased by incorrect recording.

(g) Analysing and evaluation of the data
The data will be assessed against the thesis as well as other conclusions being sought for the research question. It may be that the research might show fewer students would take the A level programme however other data gathered might show that more students who previously would not have taken the A level programme would take the Associate degree

(h) Presentation of results
The research question is used to provide a framework for presenting the findings.

(i) Review of results
In many instances the research process and results are reviewed by either the researchers peers or in an academic evaluation process.

A Closer look at Verbal Communication

A CLOSER LOOK AT VERBAL COMMUNICATION

As we saw earlier, there are two main ways in which human beings communicate verbally, that is, through speech and writing. Reading, writing, speaking and listening are the four ways in which we use this verbal communication. Each of these is a skill, and effective use of each is necessary for communication to take place.

This handbook is presented in a written format. However until it is read and interpreted by an audience (you, the student) no communication has taken place. Further to this, the entire process is incomplete unless some feedback, in the form of the weekly worksheets, is provided. Thus, the process of communication in this instance may look something like this:

Essentially, for communication to take place, both writing and reading skills must be employed. Similarly, speech communication does not end with speaking. For communication to effectively take place, the receiver/audience must employ listening skills.

It is important, then, for us to be able to not only write and speak effectively, but also to read and listen effectively.


REQUIRED READING

Zeuschner, Raymond. Communicating Today, Chapters 3, 5 & 6, Pearson Education, Inc., 2003.

Simmons-McDonald, Hazel et al. Writing in English: A Course Book For Caribbean Students, Section 1, Ian Randle Publishers, 1997.

For completion of Worksheet 3

Communications forms and contexts : Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

COMMUNICATION FORMS & CONTEXTS

Verbal & Non-Verbal Communication

In general, human beings communicate using two main forms: verbal communication and non-verbal communication.

Verbal communication, simply put, is any form of communication that uses words in order to convey meaning or transmit messages. Essentially, verbal communication is either speech or writing. There are four main skills that human beings put into practice when engaging in verbal communication: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Any verbal communication involves at least two of these skills.

Language is the one thing that all four verbal communication skills have in common; it is a specifically human form of communication that uses symbols to represent ideas and concepts. Later on in the course, we will look more closely at the concept of language, its uses and variations.

Non-Verbal Communication is the form of communication that does not involve the use of speech or writing. In effect, non-verbal communication is the use of voice, space, objects, movement, time and the five senses to convey meanings that without using words. Because the types of non-verbal communication focus on physical actions and manipulations to convey meaning, they are often referred to as communicative behaviours.

Communicative behaviours comprise the following:

Vocalics refers to the use of voice in communicating messages. This does not include actual words, but modulations in tone of voice, rate of speech, pitch and non-verbal utterances. Because vocalics is often used in conjunction with speech communication (i.e. – verbal), it is often referred to as paralanguage.

Proxemics is the use of space to communicate. Standing close to someone may indicate that you like her; likewise, changing seat during an exam may indicate that you suspect your neighbour of cheating or some sort of discomfort.

Artifacts are objects that convey some sort of message about you. These include clothes, jewellery, home decorations, book bags etc.

Movement incorporates several movements of the body – eye contact, facial expressions, posture and gestures all communicate information. Failing to meet eye contact when speaking to a parent may indicate nervousness, shame or the possibility of untruthfulness; sitting straight in a chair could indicate attentiveness.

Chronemics refers to the use of time. By being early for class you show respect for the teacher and fellow classmates; similarly, a teacher who arrives consistently late for class is exhibiting a lack of respect for her students and profession.

The five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell) are also used in non-verbal communication. For example, a normally good cook who over-salts a dish for her cheating spouse may be using taste to indicate her unhappiness or displeasure.

There are also six functions of non-verbal communication. That is, we use non-verbal communication for six main reasons:

i. Substituting is where we use non-verbal communication instead of, or to replace verbal communication. Waving goodbye instead of saying it out loud is one example of this.

ii. We also use non-verbal communication to reinforce or complement our verbal communication. Pounding your hand onto a table when arguing may reinforce whatever point you’re making.

iii. The regulating function of non-verbal communication is used mostly in conversation to control the flow of messages. Raising your hand to answer or ask a question in class helps to regulate the communication going on in the room.

iv. Sometimes we use non-verbal communication to contradict our verbal communication. The most common example of this is using vocalic sarcasm – when you say one thing, but your tone of voice says the opposite.

v. We often manage impressions through the use of non-verbal communication. The way we dress, for example, often coincides with the impression we want others to have of us.

vi. Finally, we use non-verbal communication to establish relationships. The wearing of a wedding band is a non-verbal indication that the person is married.

More on Context

As stated earlier, the context of communication is its environment. Context is particularly important in choosing the types of verbal and non-verbal communication we use every day. A doctor does not wear short pants and slippers at the clinic; this would be inappropriate. A lawyer may choose to speak in simple language to a client while using more complex language to a colleague. A hip-hop star covers himself in “bling” and speaks a version of English that is not standard when addressing his fans. All of these are examples how communication context influences form of communication.

* When deciding on which form of communication to use, always ask yourself this:
* Who am I communicating with?
* What is the attitude of my audience?
* Where is this communication act taking place?

Usually, communication contexts occur along a scale from formal to informal. Formal contexts require certain types of communication and communicative behaviours; informal contexts require others. A conversation between employer and employee, for example, is not the same as one between friends, even if the subject matter under discussion is the same.

Basically, a formal situation is one where behaviour is dictated by social norms and patterns, and an informal situation is one where there are no constraints on behaviour and communication.



REQUIRED READING

Zeuschner, Raymond. Communicating Today, Pearson Education, Inc., 2003. Chapters 5 & 6. for Worksheet 2

Worksheet 1 - the Communication Process

WORKSHEET 1

Question 1
Read the following scenario and respond to the questions that follow:

Sandra’s youth group has asked her to give them a presentation on her recent stint as a volunteer worker on the children’s ward of the Milton Cato Memorial Hospital in Kingstown. She will make the presentation this Friday evening at the group’s weekly meeting, which takes place in a concrete hut near the Cane End playing field in Marriaqua. The playing field is being used on this date by the Emmanuel High School Mesopotamia, for their annual fair and dance.

(a) What factors must Sandra consider when coming up with her presentation?
(b) Draw a graphic representation of Sandra’s communication process.

Question 2
Using T to represent true and F to represent false, respond to the following statements:
(a) The receiver of a message is responsible for its conceptualisation. __
(b) The communication process is incomplete unless feedback is given to the sender. __
(c) The first major advance in mass communication was the invention of Gutenberg’s press. _
(d) Human beings are the only animals that communicate. __
(e) Communication apprehension refers to any instance of nervousness or shyness while communicating. __
(f) Communication is inevitable. __
(g) Feedback can also be called interference or noise. __
(h) Audio/visual aids facilitate communication. __
(i) When delivering a presentation it is always best to be casual. __
(j) Internal noise refers to physical sounds that may distract an audience. __

Question 3
What are the three most important aspects of the communication process?
Why are these three things so important?

Question 4
Based on your reading, list five settings where communication regularly takes place, and briefly explain each setting.

Question 5
Using examples, explain how improving your communication skills will benefit your academic life.

The following reading will assist you to ansewer.

Zeuschner, Raymond. Communicating Today, Pearson Education, Inc., 2003. Chapters 1 & 2.

Various authors, CAPE Self Study and Distance Learning for Communication Studies, CAPE 2004. Study guides 1 & 2

The Communication Process

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Observe a newborn baby. When she’s hungry or uncomfortable, she cries; when she likes something, she smiles or coos. Communication begins at birth and is an intrinsic part of human development and interaction. As we grow older and begin interacting with the world around us, and the other people in that world, the efficiency, complexity and competence of our communication increases. Without effective communication skills, we are at a disadvantage in situations that involve other people.

Ultimately, communication is the process whereby people interact using messages. Because communication is a process, there are certain elements of this process that are present in every communication act.

Message:
This is the content of the communication process. Before the communication process begins, there must be an idea or body of knowledge that needs to be communicated.

Sender (also called source or encoder):
As the word suggests, the sender is the person/group with whom the message originates. The sender conceptualises the message. That is, she determines what the content of the message will be, the best form for the message to take and the best way of getting the message across.

Medium:
This is the method that someone chooses to convey her message. Will you use e-mail? Speech? Gestures? A poster?

Channel:
Channel is closely associated with medium. This is the means by which your message is conveyed. For example, an e-mail is a medium, whereas the internet is a channel; speech is a medium, but radios and loudspeakers are channels; gestures are a medium, your hands act as their channel; finally, a poster may be your medium, but the poster-board and ink are your channel.

Receiver (also called decoder):
Eventually your message arrives at the receiver. This is the person responsible for interpreting your message and taking some sort of meaning form it. The receiver is the main goal of any communication act.

Feedback:
After the receiver interprets the sender’s message, she then provides feedback to the sender. This is the receiver’s response to the message and is essential in that it alerts the sender to whether or not the message has been accurately/effectively received and interpreted.

Context:
Communication does not take place in a vacuum. The context of any communication act is the environment surrounding it. This includes, among other things, place, time, event, and attitudes of sender and receiver.

Noise (also called interference):
This is any factor that inhibits the conveyance of a message. That is, anything that gets in the way of the message being accurately received, interpreted and responded to. Noise may be internal or external. A student worrying about an incomplete assignment may not be attentive in class (internal noise) or the sounds of heavy rain on a galvanized roof may inhibit the reading of a storybook to second graders (external noise).

More about conceptualisation

When a sender decides to encode a message, she must take two main things into consideration during her conceptualisation stage – her context and her audience (receiver). These factors influence both choice of medium and choice of channel. The key word here is appropriateness. Choice of medium and channel are directly influenced by the purpose of the message and the intended audience. Ask yourself the following questions when determining levels of appropriateness:

i. Who is my receiver?
ii. How best can my message be conveyed?
iii. Where is the communication act taking place?
iv. What is the situation surrounding the communication act?
v. Is my audience one person or several?
vi. What medium should I use, oral or written?
vii. Should I use technology? If so, which technology would most appropriate?

In addition to all this, there are factors that may influence the effective conveyance of messages positively or negatively. Anything that helps ensure en effective transfer of messages is called a facilitator to communication. Anything that hinders this effectiveness is a barrier to communication.

Some common facilitators to communication are:
i. Choosing a familiar language
ii. Using an accessible channel
iii. Ensuring that the medium is appropriate to the message
iv. Using audio/visual aids to enhance the encoding of the message

Some common barriers to communication are:
i. A language barrier
ii. A channel that is inaccessible to the receiver
iii. The message is ineffectively encoded or the meaning is ambiguous
iv. The medium is inappropriate to the message

REQUIRED READING

Zeuschner, Raymond. Communicating Today, Pearson Education, Inc., 2003. Chapters 1 & 2.